🔍 Hypopituitarism — Clinical Overview
本篇為 pituitary 拆分子篇
母篇(anatomy、anterior pituitary 各 hormone 生理、MEN/APS):Pituitary Disorders(總覽) 姊妹篇:Hypopituitarism|Pituitary Tumor Syndromes| SIADH)
Hormone 缺乏順序(損傷時)
GH最先失去(最易受影響)→ LH/FSH → TSH → ACTH(最後,最重要)
Sheehan’s Syndrome
- 產後大量 hemorrhage → 垂體 ischemic necrosis
- 產後無法哺乳(PRL deficiency)、amenorrhea、secondary adrenal/thyroid 功能低下
治療(替代療法)
依 hormone 缺乏補充:Hydrocortisone > Levothyroxine > Sex hormones > GH > DDAVP
補充順序鐵則:先 glucocorticoid,再 thyroid hormone
若同時有 secondary adrenal insufficiency 與 central hypothyroidism,務必先給 glucocorticoid(hydrocortisone)穩定,再開始 levothyroxine。否則 thyroid hormone 會加速 cortisol 代謝/提高代謝率 → 誘發 adrenal crisis(腎上腺危象)。
各hormone具體補充:
- Glucocorticoid(最優先):Hydrocortisone 15–25 mg/day 分次(如早 10 mg + 午 5 mg;或 hydrocortisone 早 ⅔、午 ⅓),壓力/生病時 stress dose 加倍(sick-day rules);急重症用 IV hydrocortisone。Secondary AI 不需補 mineralocorticoid(aldosterone 受 RAAS 調控,不靠 ACTH)。
- Thyroid hormone(次之):Levothyroxine 約 1.6 mcg/kg/day;central hypothyroidism 以 free T4 維持在正常上半段調量,不可用 TSH 監測(TSH 本就不可靠)。
- Sex hormones:男性 testosterone(無生育需求)、女性 estrogen±progesterone(子宮完整者加 progesterone);有生育需求改用 gonadotropins(hCG/FSH)或 pulsatile GnRH。
- GH:成人 GH deficiency 確診後,低劑量起始依 IGF-1 與症狀調整。
- DDAVP:合併 AVP-D 時,劑量見上節。
各hormone缺乏特徵(來源:Pocket Medicine 9th Ed.)
| 缺乏hormone | 特徵表現 |
|---|---|
| PRL 缺乏(Hypoprolactinemia) | Sheehan’s syndrome(產後大量 hemorrhage)→ 無法哺乳、產後 amenorrhea |
| GH 缺乏 | osteoporosis 風險↑、fatigue、lean body mass↓;診斷:insulin tolerance test(ITT)、Glucagon 或 Macimorelin 刺激後 GH 不升高 |
| Central hypogonadism | FSH/LH↓ → libido↓、erectile dysfunction、oligo/amenorrhea、infertility、muscle mass↓、osteoporosis;診斷:清晨 testosterone 或 estradiol↓ + FSH/LH 低或正常(acute 病患者不適合測量) |
| 中樞性 DI(ADH deficiency) | 通常由鞍區外 mass 引起(pituitary tumor 本身通常不引起);詳見 Nephrology |
診斷原則(來源:Pocket Medicine 9th Ed.)
- chronic 缺乏:target gland hormone↓ + pituitary trophic hormone↓或不適當正常
- acute 缺乏:target gland hormone↓(垂體損傷後,ACTH 刺激試驗可能正常,因 adrenal atrophy 需 4-6 週)
- 部分 hypopituitarism 比全 hypopituitarism 更常見
- 垂體 MRI:需用垂體特殊掃描方案(contrast-enhanced)
住院病患最重要缺乏
住院病患最重要需識別和治療的缺乏:adrenal insufficiency 和 hypothyroidism;若兩者同時存在,先用 Glucocorticoids 再補充 thyroid hormone(避免誘發 adrenal crisis)(來源:Pocket Medicine 9th Ed.)
垂體卒中補充(來源:Pocket Medicine 9th Ed.)
- Rx:立即高劑量 glucocorticoid;若有嚴重 neurologic 損傷或意識改變 → 緊急手術減壓;輕症 → 保守治療
📖 Harrison 22e Ch.391 補充:Hypopituitarism
來源:Melmed S, Jameson JL. Chapter 391: Hypopituitarism. In: Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 22nd Edition. McGraw Hill, 2026(15 頁全文)。
病因全表與 hormone 流失順序
/pituitary-disorders/assets/harrison22-tab391-1-hypopituitarism-etiology.png)
表:Hypopituitarism 病因全表(八大類)——Development/structural(midline cerebral defect、pituitary dysplasia/aplasia、primary empty sella、septo-optic dysplasia/Prader-Willi/Bardet-Biedl/Kallmann)、Genetic、Traumatic(surgical resection、radiotherapy、head injury)、Neoplastic(pituitary adenoma、parasellar mass、Rathke’s cyst、craniopharyngioma、hypothalamic hamartoma、pituitary metastases:breast/lung/colon、lymphoma/leukemia、meningioma)、Infiltrative/inflammatory(lymphocytic hypophysitis、hemochromatosis、sarcoidosis、histiocytosis X、transcription factor antibodies、immunotherapy)、Vascular(apoplexy、pregnancy-related:diabetes 的 infarction/postpartum necrosis、SAH、sickle cell、arteritis、snake bite venom)、Infections、Drug-induced:CTLA-4 inhibitors、PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors。 ⭐⭐ 表尾 footnote 是本章最高頻考點:壓迫或破壞造成的 trophic hormone failure 通常依序發生——GH > FSH > LH > TSH > ACTH;兒童以 growth retardation 為最常見表現,成人則以 hypogonadism 為最早症狀。(Harrison’s 22e Table 391-1;PDF p.1–3)
病因的關鍵細節
- Developmental:>50 個 transcription factor 與 growth factor 參與(HESX1、SOX2/3、LHX3/4、OTX、GLI2、PAX6、BMP4、ARNT2、FGF8、FGFR1、SHH、PROKR2、GPR161、IGSF1、PITX2、CHD7)
- ⭐ Pit-1 mutation → GH + PRL + TSH 三者缺乏(MRI 上 pituitary 常呈 hypoplastic)
- ⭐ PROP1 mutation → GH + PRL + TSH + gonadotropin 缺乏;>80% 有 growth retardation;成年時全部缺 TSH 與 gonadotropin,少數之後才出現 ACTH 缺乏;因 gonadotropin 缺乏而無法自發進入 puberty;⚠️ 部分患者 MRI 上 pituitary 反而「變大」(易被誤判為腫瘤)
- TPIT mutation → ACTH 缺乏合併 hypocortisolism;NR5A1(SF1)→ gonadotrope 與 adrenal/gonadal 發育受損
- Kallmann syndrome:GnRH 合成缺陷 + anosmia/hyposmia(olfactory bulb agenesis 或 hypoplasia);可合併 color blindness、optic atrophy、nerve deafness、cleft palate、renal abnormalities、cryptorchidism、mirror movements;**KAL1(X-linked)**為最初發現的基因,另有 GPR54/KISS1(AR)、FGFR1(AD)等十餘個;⭐ 部分為 oligogenic(多基因組合)
- Acquired 的量化:traumatic 與 vascular 原因約占 hypopituitarism 的 5%;⭐ 這些患者中 25–40% 在長期追蹤會出現 hypothalamic 或 pituitary dysfunction → 腦傷後需長期定期內分泌追蹤
- Hypothalamic infiltration(sarcoidosis、histiocytosis X、amyloidosis、hemochromatosis):⭐ AVP-D 出現在半數患者;hypogonadotropic hypogonadism 與 hyperprolactinemia 亦常見
- Cranial irradiation:⭐ 顱底中位劑量 50 Gy 後,最終高達 2/3 出現 hormone insufficiency;在 5–15 年間逐漸發生,且多反映 hypothalamic damage 而非 pituitary cell 的原發破壞;⭐ 缺乏順序:GH 最常見 → gonadotropin → TSH → ACTH
- Lymphocytic hypophysitis:⭐ 最常見於 postpartum 女性;表現為 hyperprolactinemia + MRI 上酷似 adenoma 的 pituitary mass(PRL 僅輕度升高);ESR 常升高;⚠️⚠️ 產後女性新發現 pituitary mass,應先考慮 hypophysitis 再決定是否手術(避免不必要的手術);glucocorticoid 治療數月後 inflammation 常緩解,pituitary function 可能恢復
- 🆕 Immunotherapy 相關 hypophysitis:pituitary cell 表現 CTLA-4;⭐ 接受 CTLA-4 inhibitor(ipilimumab)者高達 20% 出現 hypophysitis,可合併 thyroid、adrenal、islet、gonadal failure;PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor(pembrolizumab、nivolumab)亦有報告且表現較延遲;⭐ HLA DQ0602 在 39% 的 checkpoint inhibitor 相關 hypophysitis 患者中出現;補充 hormone(±高劑量 glucocorticoid)後通常可安全繼續 immunotherapy
- Pituitary apoplexy:可自發於既有 adenoma、postpartum(Sheehan’s)、或伴隨 diabetes/hypertension/sickle cell/acute shock;⭐ 妊娠時 pituitary 的 hyperplastic enlargement 本身就增加 hemorrhage 與 infarction 風險
- 是 endocrine emergency:可導致 severe hypoglycemia、hypotension 與 shock、CNS hemorrhage、death
- 急性表現:severe headache + meningeal irritation、bilateral visual changes、ophthalmoplegia,嚴重者 cardiovascular collapse 與意識喪失
- ⭐ 處置分流:無明顯視力喪失或意識障礙 → 可保守觀察 + 高劑量 glucocorticoid;顯著或進行性視力喪失、cranial nerve palsy、意識喪失 → 緊急手術減壓
- ⭐ 視力恢復與「急性事件後到手術的時間」成反比 → 嚴重 ophthalmoplegia 或視野缺損是及早手術的適應症
- Apoplexy 後 hypopituitarism 很常見
- Empty sella:多為 MRI 偶然發現,pituitary function 通常正常(周邊殘存組織功能完整),但 hypopituitarism 可能隱匿發生;⚠️ 少數在殘存組織中仍有功能性小 adenoma,且 MRI 上不一定看得到
- 預後:⭐ 長期 pituitary damage 者 mortality 上升,主因為 cardiovascular 與 cerebrovascular disease;曾接受頭頸部放射線治療也是 mortality 上升的決定因素(尤其 cerebrovascular disease)
動態功能試驗(Table 391-2)
TABLE 391-2 Tests of Pituitary Sufficiency(Harrison’s 22e Table 391-2;PDF p.6–7。原表為純文字表,改以 markdown 逐字轉錄;另有兩處原文誤植已修正,見表下註記)
| HORMONE | TEST | BLOOD SAMPLES | INTERPRETATION |
|---|---|---|---|
| GH | Insulin tolerance test: Regular insulin (0.05–0.15 U/kg IV) | −30, 0, 30, 60, 120 min for glucose and GH | Glucose <40 mg/dL; GH should be >3 µg/L |
| GHRH/L-arginine test: GHRH 1 µg/kg IV and arginine 30 g IV over 30 min | 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 120 min for GH | Normal GH response is BMI dependent: 11 µg/L if BMI <25 kg/m², 8 µg/L if BMI 25-30, and 4 µg/L if BMI ≥30 Not available in the United States | |
| Ghrelin receptor agonist test: 0.5 mg/kg PO | 0, 30, 45, 60, 90 min for GH | Normal response is GH >2.8 µg/L | |
| Glucagon test: 1 mg IM (1.5 mg if body weight >90 kg) | 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240 for GH | Normal response is GH >3.0 µg/L if BMI <25 kg/m² or if BMI 25-30 and low pretest probability, and GH >1.0 µg/L if BMI 25-30 and high pretest probability or if BMI >30 | |
| L-Dopa test: 500 mg PO | 0, 30, 60, 120 min for GH | Normal response is GH >3 µg/L | |
| PRL | TRH test: 200–500 µg IV | 0, 20, and 60 min for TSH and PRL | Normal PRL is >2 µg/L and increase >200% of baseline |
| ACTH | Insulin tolerance test: Regular insulin (0.05–0.15 U/kg IV) | −30, 0, 30, 60, 90 min for glucose and cortisol | Glucose <40 mg/dL Cortisol should increase by >7 µg/dL or to >20 µg/dL |
| CRH test: 1 µg/kg CRH IV at 8 A.M. | 0, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120 min for ACTH and cortisol | Basal ACTH increases 2- to 4-fold and peaks at 20–100 pg/mL Cortisol levels >20–25 µg/dL | |
| Metyrapone test: Metyrapone (30 mg/kg) at midnight | Plasma 11-deoxycortisol and cortisol at 8 A.M.; ACTH can also be measured | Plasma cortisol should be <4 µg/dL to assure an adequate response Normal response is 11-deoxycortisol >7.5 µg/dL or ACTH >75 pg/mL | |
| Standard ACTH stimulation test: ACTH 1-24 (cosyntropin), 0.25 mg IM or IV | 0, 30, 60 min for cortisol and aldosterone | Normal response is cortisol >21 µg/dL and aldosterone response >4 ng/dL above baseline | |
| Low-dose ACTH test: ACTH 1-24 (cosyntropin), 1 µg IV | 0, 30, 60 min for cortisol | Cortisol should be >21 µg/dL | |
| 3-day ACTH stimulation test consists of 0.25 mg ACTH 1-24 given IV over 8 h each day | — | Cortisol >21 µg/dL | |
| TSH | Basal thyroid function tests: T₄, T₃, TSH | Basal measurements | Low free thyroid hormone levels in the setting of TSH levels that are not appropriately increased indicate pituitary insufficiency |
| TRH test: 200–500 µg IV | 0, 20, 60 min for TSH and PRLᵃ | TSH should increase by >5 mU/L unless thyroid hormone levels are increased | |
| LH, FSH | LH, FSH, testosterone, estrogen | Basal measurements | Basal LH and FSH should be increased in postmenopausal women Low testosterone levels in the setting of low LH and FSH indicate pituitary insufficiency |
| GnRH test: GnRH (100 µg) IV | 0, 30, 60 min for LH and FSH | In most adults, LH should increase by 10 IU/L and FSH by 2 IU/L Normal responses are variable | |
| Multiple hormones | Combined anterior pituitary test: GHRH (1 µg/kg), CRH (1 µg/kg), GnRH (100 µg), TRH (200 µg) are given IV | −30, 0, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120 min for GH, ACTH, cortisol, LH, FSH, and TSH | Combined or individual releasing hormone responses must be elevated in the context of basal target gland hormone values and may not be uniformly diagnostic (see text) |
ᵃ Evoked PRL response indicates lactotrope integrity. Abbreviations: T₃, triiodothyronine; T₄, thyroxine; TRH, thyrotropin-releasing hormone. For other abbreviations, see text.
✅ 本表已修正原文的兩處誤植(2026-08-11 經使用者確認後直接改正,表中呈現的是正確值):
- GHRH/L-arginine 列:原文印為「BMI 25-20」→ 已改為 BMI 25-30(依上下文,前為 <25、後為 ≥30)。
- Metyrapone 列:原文印為「cortisol should be <4 g/dL」→ 已改為 <4 µg/dL(單位誤植)。
- ⭐ 診斷原則:在 target organ hormone 偏低的情境下,pituitary trophic hormone 卻「低」或「不適當地正常」 → 即為 pituitary insufficiency。例:free T₄ 低而 TSH 未升高 → secondary hypothyroidism;testosterone 低而 gonadotropin 未升高 → hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
- ⭐ ACTH reserve 最可靠的評估是「insulin-induced hypoglycemia 期間的 ACTH 與 cortisol」
- ⚠️⚠️ ITT 的禁忌與注意:疑似 adrenal insufficiency 者須謹慎執行(對 hypoglycemia 與 hypotension 的易感性增加);active coronary artery disease 或已知 seizure disorder 為禁忌
各軸替代治療(Table 391-3)
/pituitary-disorders/assets/harrison22-tab391-3-hormone-replacement.png)
表:Adult hypopituitarism 的 hormone replacement——ACTH:hydrocortisone 10–20 mg/d 分次、cortisone acetate 15–25 mg/d 分次、prednisone 5 mg 早上;TSH:L-thyroxine 0.075–0.15 mg/d;FSH/LH:男性 testosterone gel 5–10 g/d、skin patch 5 mg/d、enanthate 200 mg IM q2w;女性 conjugated estrogen 0.65–1.25 mg qd×25 天 + progesterone 5–10 mg 於 16–25 天(或 estradiol patch,子宮完整者加 progesterone);生育需 menopausal gonadotropins / hCG;GH:成人 somatropin 0.1–1.25 mg SC qd、兒童 0.02–0.05 mg/kg/d;AVP:intranasal desmopressin 5–20 µg bid 或口服 300–600 µg qd。⚠️ 所有劑量須個別化,並於 stress、surgery、pregnancy 時重新評估。(Harrison’s 22e Table 391-3;PDF p.8)
- ⭐ ACTH deficiency 與 primary adrenal failure 的關鍵對比:pituitary 來源的 hypocortisolism「不會」有 hyperpigmentation,也「不會」有 mineralocorticoid deficiency(mineralocorticoid 相對保留)→ 見 Adrenal Insufficiency
- ⭐ ACTH deficiency 最常見的原因其實是「治療相關的 HPA axis 抑制後停用 glucocorticoid」
- ⭐ 切除 ACTH-secreting adenoma 後出現「孤立性 ACTH deficiency」,反而提示手術治癒
- Hydrocortisone 每日總量以不超過 20 mg 為佳(避免 cushingoid 副作用);急性疾病或壓力時須加數倍;病人應配戴 medical alert bracelet 或攜帶識別卡
- ⭐ Hypogonadism 是成人 hypopituitarism「最常見的表現」,即使其他 hormone 也缺乏時亦然;也常是 hyperprolactinemia 的表現
- GnRH test 的價值有限:正常反應代表 gonadotrope 完整、提示 hypothalamic 病灶;但無反應「不能」可靠區分 pituitary 與 hypothalamic 原因 → 除 isolated GnRH deficiency(如 Kallmann)外,GnRH test 對 baseline 評估幾乎沒有額外貢獻
Adult GH deficiency(AGHD)
/pituitary-disorders/assets/harrison22-tab391-4-adult-gh-deficiency-features.png)
表:Adult GH deficiency 的特徵——Clinical(quality of life 受損:energy/drive 下降、concentration 差、low self-esteem、social isolation;body composition:body fat↑、central fat deposition、waist-to-hip ratio↑、lean body mass↓;exercise capacity↓;cardiovascular risk factors:心臟結構功能受損、abnormal lipid profile、fibrinolytic activity↓、atherosclerosis、omental obesity)、Imaging(pituitary mass/structural damage、bone mineral density↓、abdominal omental adiposity)、Laboratory(evoked GH <3 ng/mL、IGF-1 與 IGFBP-3 低或正常、LDL↑、可能併 gonadotropin/TSH/ACTH reserve 缺損)。(Harrison’s 22e Table 391-4;PDF p.11)
- ⭐ AGHD 與 threefold 的 cardiovascular mortality 上升相關(且此關聯可能就源自 GH deficiency 本身,因研究中其他缺乏的 hormone 都已被替代)
- 檢測對象要嚴選,限於下列易感因子:①pituitary surgery ②pituitary/hypothalamic tumor 或 granuloma ③cranial irradiation 病史 ④影像上的 pituitary lesion ⑤兒童期曾需 GH replacement
- ⚠️ 兒童期發病者成年後必須「重測」:⭐ 高達 20% 重測時其實 GH 已足夠
- ⚠️ IGF-1 不能單獨用來診斷:⭐ 約 25% 真正 GH-deficient 的成人有「低正常」的 IGF-1
- ⭐ 最被驗證的檢查是 ITT:AGHD 定義為 peak GH response <3 µg/L(正常成人約 90% 可 >5 µg/L);⚠️ ITT 在 diabetes、ischemic heart disease、cerebrovascular disease、epilepsy 與 elderly 為禁忌;替代刺激試驗:arginine 30 g、GHRH 1 µg/kg、oral ghrelin receptor agonist 0.5 mg/kg、glucagon 1 mg
/pituitary-disorders/assets/harrison22-fig391-1-adult-ghd-management.png)
圖:Adult GH deficiency 的處置流程——pituitary pathology 病史 + 臨床特徵 + evoked GH <3 µg/L → 排除禁忌 → GH 0.1–0.3 mg/d → 1 個月後測 IGF-1 → titrate 至最高 1.25 mg/d → 6 個月評估:有反應則持續監測 IGF-1,無反應則停藥。(Harrison’s 22e Fig. 391-1;PDF p.12)
- 治療細節:起始 0.1–0.2 mg/d,titrate 至最高 1.25 mg/d,目標為把 IGF-1 維持在同年齡同性別的 mid-normal 範圍;⭐ 女性需要較高劑量、elderly 需要較低劑量
- 禁忌:active neoplasm、intracranial hypertension、uncontrolled diabetes 與 retinopathy
- 副作用:⭐ 約 30% 出現可逆、劑量相關的 fluid retention、joint pain、carpal tunnel syndrome;高達 40% 有 myalgia 與 paresthesia;T2DM 患者初期可能 insulin resistance 惡化(GH 是強力的 counterregulatory hormone),但隨腹部脂肪減少血糖控制通常改善
- 長效製劑:近期核准的 long-acting GH 為 每週注射;理想上應 titrate 至 normal 而非 supra-normal 的 IGF-1
🔗 相關筆記
- Pituitary Disorders(總覽) — anatomy、hypothalamic-pituitary portal system、六大 anterior pituitary hormone 的生理
- Pituitary Tumor Syndromes — 腫瘤壓迫與術後/放療後的 hypopituitarism;pituitary apoplexy
- Neurohypophysis Disorders — stalk 病灶同時造成 anterior 與 posterior 缺乏
- Adrenal Insufficiency — secondary AI;⭐ 先 glucocorticoid 再 levothyroxine
- Hypothyroidism — central(secondary)hypothyroidism 的判讀
📚 References
- Katznelson L, et al. Endocrine Society Acromegaly Clinical Practice Guideline — J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99(11):3933-3951
- Melmed S, et al. Endocrine Society Hyperprolactinemia/Prolactinoma Guideline — J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96(2):273-288
- Freda PU, et al. Endocrine Society Pituitary Incidentaloma Guideline — J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96(4):894-904
- Arima H, et al. Changing the name of diabetes insipidus: a position statement of The Working Group for Renaming Diabetes Insipidus — Endocr J 2022;69(11):1281-1284. PMID: 36244744(同步刊於 Eur J Endocrinol 2022;187(5):P1-P3. PMID: 36239119;Arch Endocrinol Metab 2022;66(6):868-870. PMID: 36219203)。建議 central DI → AVP-D、nephrogenic DI → AVP-R
- Fenske W, et al. A Copeptin-Based Approach in the Diagnosis of Diabetes Insipidus — N Engl J Med 2018;379(5):428-439. PMID: 30067922(HST-stimulated copeptin >4.9 pmol/L,診斷正確率 96.5% vs 水剝奪試驗 76.6%)
- Melmed S. Acromegaly Review — NEJM 2006;355(24):2558-2573
- Wirth LJ, et al. Efficacy of Selpercatinib in RET-Altered Thyroid Cancers(LIBRETTO-001) — N Engl J Med 2020;383(9):825-835. PMID: 32846061
- Elisei R, et al. Phase 3 Trial of Selpercatinib in Advanced RET-Mutant Medullary Thyroid Cancer(LIBRETTO-531) — N Engl J Med 2023;389(20):1851-1861. PMID: 37870969
- Pituitary Tumors / GH-secreting Adenoma Reviews — NEJM 2020;382:937(卷頁待查證)
- Pocket Medicine 9th Edition — Endocrinology
最後更新:2026-06-23(補 DI 改名 position statement PMID 36244744/36239119;各病具體劑量 cabergoline/bromocriptine/SSA/pegvisomant/DDAVP;hypopituitarism 補充順序先 GC 再 thyroid;MEN 段補 MTC RET 標靶 selpercatinib LIBRETTO-001/531;考點 callout 預設折疊)。前版 2026-06-15(DI → AVP-D/AVP-R 改名、copeptin/HST 診斷;整合 Pocket Medicine 9th Ed.)
