Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) & Herpangina — Clinical Overview

Update scope

資料更新至 2026-07;整合 UpToDate 2026、Saguil et al. 2019 rapid evidence review、Taiwan CDC 2025–2026 guidance,以及 Taiwan EV-A71 vaccine evidence。

1. Clinical frame

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) 是由 nonpolio enteroviruses 引起的 acute febrile exanthem,典型組合為:

  • Oral enanthem:painful vesicles / shallow ulcers。
  • Acral exanthem:macules、papules 或 vesicles,常見於 palms、soles,也可延伸至 buttocks、arms、legs。
  • 多數為 self-limited disease,約 7–10 days 內改善。

Herpangina 同屬 enterovirus spectrum,但病灶以 posterior oropharynx 為主,通常沒有 skin eruption。

FeatureTypical HFMDHerpanginaPrimary HSV gingivostomatitis
Oral distributiontongue、buccal mucosa、anterior mouth;可延伸至 soft palatesoft palate、tonsillar pillars、uvula,通常 posteriordiffuse anterior oral cavity、gingiva、lips
Skin findingspalms / soles ± buttocks / extremitiesabsentperioral vesicles 可有,但無典型 acral exanthem
Fever常 low-grade常 abrupt high fever常 high fever、marked malaise
Key clueoral lesions + acral lesionsposterior lesions without rashpainful gingivitis、friable/bleeding gums、diffuse ulcers

Fast recognition

看到 oral ulcer + palm/sole lesion,先想 HFMD;看到 posterior oral ulcer without rash,先想 herpangina;看到 diffuse gingivitis + anterior ulcers,優先考慮 primary HSV gingivostomatitis。

2. Virology & epidemiology

  • 最常見 pathogens 為 Coxsackievirus A16 (CV-A16)Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71)Coxsackievirus A6 (CV-A6);其他 enterovirus serotypes 亦可致病。
  • CV-A6 與 atypical、widespread、vesiculobullous disease、eczema coxsackium、delayed desquamation / onychomadesis 關聯較強。
  • EV-A71 historically 與 rhombencephalitis、acute flaccid paralysis、autonomic/cardiopulmonary collapse 等 severe disease 關聯最明確;但 severe enterovirus disease 並非 EV-A71 專屬
  • Taiwan CDC 2026 surveillance 顯示 community isolates 以 CV-A6 為主,其次為 CV-A4 / CV-A16;當年 severe cases 亦見 Enterovirus D68、CV-A4、CV-A16
  • 主要影響 infants 與 children <5–7 years,但 adolescents、adults、pregnant patients 皆可能感染。
  • Temperate climates 常於 summer–early autumn 上升;tropical/subtropical regions 可全年發生。

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Table 1, PDF p.24。表格呈現 enterovirus taxonomy 與常見 clinical syndromes。

3. Transmission & pathogenesis

Transmission

  • fecal–oral contact
  • oral–oral / respiratory secretions
  • vesicle fluid
  • contaminated hands、surfaces 與 fomites

Incubation 通常 3–5 days,文獻範圍約 2–7 days。第一週 contagiousness 最高;即使症狀改善,virus 仍可由 stool 持續排出。Taiwan CDC 提醒 stool shedding 可達 8–12 weeks,因此不能以「完全停止 viral shedding」作為 return-to-school 條件。人類是唯一 reservoir;EV-A71 的 household transmission rate 高達 52–84%(Saguil et al. 2019),說明 hand hygiene 與環境清潔在家庭群聚中的重要性。

Pathogenesis

Virus 先於 oropharyngeal / intestinal mucosa replication,進入 regional lymphoid tissue,經 minor viremia 形成 mucocutaneous disease;若發生 major viremia 與 neurotropism,可能侵犯 CNS、heart 或 lung。

4. Clinical presentation

4.1 Typical HFMD

  • Prodrome 可有 low-grade fever、sore throat、poor appetite、malaise。
  • Oral lesions 常先出現:1–5 mm vesicles 很快 rupture,成為 1–10 mm shallow ulcers;疼痛可造成 food/fluid refusal。
  • Skin lesions 多為 nonpruritic、painless macules / papules / vesicles,典型 2–6 mm、周圍有 erythematous halo,evolve 成 vesicle 後 rupture,留下 painless shallow ulcer 且 通常不留疤;常沿 skin lines 呈橢圓形。
  • 約 75% 同時有 enanthem 與 exanthem;少數只有 oral 或 skin findings。

Source images: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Pictures 1A、1B、2, PDF pp.25–27;典型 oral(tongue + buccal mucosa)與 foot vesicular lesions。

Source images: HFMD2.pdf, Saguil et al. 2019 Figures 1–3, PDF pp.2–3;classic palms、soles 與 oral ulcers。

4.2 Atypical HFMD / CV-A6 phenotype

下列 findings 應提高對 CV-A6-associated atypical HFMD 的懷疑:

  • higher fever、more severe systemic symptoms
  • widespread vesicles、bullae、erosions、eschar
  • perioral、trunk、neck、extremity involvement,超出 classic acral distribution
  • eczema coxsackium:lesions 聚集在 atopic dermatitis、skin injury 或其他 barrier disruption 處
  • convalescent palmar/plantar desquamation(約 1–3 weeks)
  • Beau lines / onychomadesis(常於 3–8 weeks,部分資料描述 1–2 months)

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Picture 3, PDF p.28;generalized HFMD spectrum。

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Picture 4, PDF p.29;CV-A6-associated extensive lesions 與 delayed onychomadesis。

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Picture 5, PDF p.30;eczema coxsackium。

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Picture 6, PDF p.31;adult atypical CV-A6 HFMD。

4.3 Herpangina

  • abrupt fever,常達 38.9–40°C
  • sore throat、odynophagia、poor intake
  • 通常 <10 個 painful papulovesicular / ulcerative lesions
  • 位於 anterior tonsillar pillars、soft palate、tonsils、uvula
  • absence of skin lesions 是與 HFMD 區分的核心
  • fever 常約 2 days 改善,oral lesions 約 5–6 days 消退

Source image: HFMD.pdf, UpToDate Picture 7, PDF p.32;posterior oropharyngeal lesions of herpangina。

5. Severe disease & complications

Common / usually limited

  • dehydration due to odynophagia
  • secondary bacterial infection of disrupted skin(uncommon)
  • late desquamation、Beau lines、onychomadesis

Neurologic / cardiopulmonary complications

  • aseptic meningitis
  • encephalitis / rhombencephalitis
  • acute flaccid paralysis
  • autonomic dysfunction、tachycardia、hypertension
  • myocarditis、heart failure
  • neurogenic pulmonary edema / pulmonary hemorrhage

Taiwan CDC severe warning signs

出現 lethargy / altered consciousness / poor activity、limb weakness or paralysis、myoclonus、persistent vomiting、tachypnea 或 tachycardia,應立即轉送 acute care 評估。Young age、persistent fever ≥3 days、vomiting、lethargy 與 EV-A71 infection 亦與 severe disease risk 增加有關。

Do not anchor on EV-A71

EV-A71 是經典 high-risk serotype,但 current Taiwan surveillance 顯示其他 enteroviruses 也可造成 severe disease;triage 應以 clinical red flags 為主,不應等 serotype result。

6. Diagnosis & workup

6.1 Clinical diagnosis

典型 HFMD / herpangina 通常不需要 laboratory confirmation。Diagnosis 依 lesion morphology、distribution、age、season 與 exposure history。

6.2 When to test

考慮 sampling / NAAT 的情境:

  • atypical or severe disease
  • CNS / cardiopulmonary complication
  • immunocompromised host
  • outbreak investigation / public-health need
  • eczema coxsackium 與 eczema herpeticum 無法可靠區分
  • differential 包含 varicella、HSV、mpox 等需特異治療或 isolation 的疾病

6.3 Specimen interpretation

  • Vesicle fluid NAAT 最能將 skin lesion 與 enterovirus 建立 causal link。
  • 有 meningitis / encephalitis 時送 CSF NAAT;但 EV-A71 CNS disease 的 CSF viral yield 可能不高,仍需 throat / stool 等 paired specimens 與 clinical interpretation。
  • Throat / stool NAAT 可提高 detection,但可能代表 prolonged shedding,不能單獨證明當下 syndrome 的 cause。

6.4 Differential diagnosis

DiseaseDistinguishing clues
Aphthous ulcersisolated recurrent oral ulcers;no fever、no acral exanthem
Primary HSV gingivostomatitisdiffuse painful gingivitis、friable/bleeding gums、anterior oral/labial lesions
Eczema herpeticummonomorphic punched-out erosions、pain、systemic toxicity;需 urgent HSV PCR 與 empiric antiviral consideration
Varicellalesions in multiple stages,trunk-predominant,通常 pruritic
Erythema multiforme majortarget lesions,often acral/symmetric;prominent mucosal involvement 可見
Mpoxdeep-seated / umbilicated lesions、lymphadenopathy、epidemiologic risk
Papular urticaria / contact dermatitispruritus 與 exposure pattern;通常無 oral enanthem
Stevens–Johnson syndrome / toxic epidermal necrolysismedication exposure、prominent mucosal disease、skin pain / detachment、systemic illness

Source image: HFMD2.pdf, Saguil et al. 2019 Table 1, PDF pp.4–5。此表適合比較 morphology / differential;其 treatment 欄為 2019 snapshot,部分內容已過時,實際治療須依 current disease-specific guidance。

7. Management

7.1 Uncomplicated disease

Treatment 為 supportive care

  • encourage frequent cool fluids;依 hydration status 調整 oral / IV rehydration
  • acetaminophen 或 ibuprofen 依 age、weight、contraindications 與 current formulary 用於 pain / fever
  • soft foods;避免 acidic / spicy foods 加重 oral pain
  • skin lesions 保持清潔乾燥,避免刺破 vesicles

Avoid

  • Topical oral lidocaine、diphenhydramine mixtures 或其他 topical anesthetics:children 缺乏明確 benefit,且可能造成 systemic toxicity / aspiration risk。
  • Acyclovir:enteroviruses 缺乏使 acyclovir 活化所需的 thymidine kinase,無 controlled evidence 支持用於 HFMD。
  • Antibiotics:除非另有 bacterial infection evidence。
  • Dehydrated child 使用 NSAID 前,先 correction of volume depletion 並評估 kidney risk。

7.2 Admit / urgent referral when

  • inability to maintain hydration、oliguria 或 hemodynamic compromise
  • neurologic warning signs / altered mental status / weakness / myoclonus
  • tachypnea、tachycardia 或 suspected myocarditis / pulmonary edema
  • severe pain 無法 outpatient control
  • immunocompromised host with extensive disease
  • eczema coxsackium 與 eczema herpeticum 無法區分,且需要 urgent HSV-directed management

Severe enterovirus CNS / cardiopulmonary disease 的 critical care、IVIG 或其他 adjunctive therapy 應依 Taiwan severe-enterovirus protocol 與 specialist assessment;不是 uncomplicated HFMD 的 routine therapy

Source image: HFMD2.pdf, Saguil et al. 2019 SORT recommendations, PDF p.2。核心 supportive-care principles 仍適用;vaccine statement 已因 Taiwan 2023 EV-A71 vaccines 上市而過時。

8. Infection control & return to childcare/school

Household / clinic

  • soap-and-water hand hygiene,尤其 diaper change、toileting、feeding 前後
  • 不共用 cups、utensils、towels;清潔 toys、high-touch surfaces 與 diaper areas
  • Alcohol 對 enteroviruses 的 inactivation 效果有限;環境消毒優先依 Taiwan CDC 使用 chlorine-based disinfectant
  • 一般環境可用 500 ppm available chlorine;Taiwan CDC example 為 10 L water + 100 mL household chlorine bleach,實際仍需依產品原始 concentration 換算
  • Healthcare settings 採 Standard + Contact Precautions;依 local policy 加強 droplet / outbreak control

Childcare / school

  • Child 有 fever、無法正常參與活動、open/draining blisters 或 uncontrolled drooling 時留在家中。
  • 症狀改善後可依 local public-health / childcare policy return;排毒可持續數週,單純延長 exclusion 無法完全阻斷 transmission。
  • Taiwan CDC 所列 childcare closure framework 會依 EV-A71 epidemic activity、同班 cases 與 local government rules 調整;常見 default closure period 為 7 days,但須以所在地衛生主管機關最新公告為準。

9. EV-A71 vaccine in Taiwan

Taiwan 自 2023 年起有兩種 whole-virus inactivated EV-A71 vaccines 上市:

  • 適用年齡為 2 months to <6 years,由 physician assessment 後自費接種。
  • Protection 針對 EV-A71;目前沒有證據顯示可 cross-protect CV-A16、CV-A6、Enterovirus D68 等其他 serotypes,因此接種後仍可能得到 HFMD。
  • Prior dose / component 曾 severe allergic reaction 者 contraindicated。
  • Acute serious febrile illness / infection 時先 defer,待病情穩定後接種。
  • 不同 product 的 primary series / booster schedule 可能不同,應依 product label 與 Taiwan CDC current recommendation。

Phase 3 evidence 顯示 inactivated EV-A71 vaccine 可預防 EV-A71-associated HFMD;但不能把此 efficacy 外推至 all-cause HFMD。

10. Prognosis & follow-up

  • Typical HFMD 多在 7–10 days 完全改善。
  • Skin lesions 通常不留疤;extensive bullous / erosive lesions 需追蹤 secondary infection。
  • Palmar/plantar desquamation 可於 1–3 weeks 後出現。
  • Beau lines / onychomadesis 常於 3–8 weeks 後出現,通常 nail matrix 會自行恢復;若持續疼痛、periungual inflammation 或 regrowth abnormality,再轉 Dermatology。
  • Safety-net 應明確交代 hydration、urine output、mental status、limb strength、breathing 與 heart rate changes。

11. Clinical pearls

  1. HFMD diagnosis 重點是 oral + acral distribution,不是每個 case 都有完整 triad。
  2. CV-A6 可 mimick varicella、eczema herpeticum、erythema multiforme 或 Stevens–Johnson syndrome。
  3. Stool / throat NAAT positive 可能只是 prolonged shedding;specimen site 與 phenotype 必須一起解讀。
  4. Myoclonus、limb weakness、persistent vomiting、tachypnea / tachycardia 是 severe warning signs,不要等 EV-A71 typing。
  5. Onychomadesis 是 well-described delayed sequela,通常 self-limited,可先 reassurance。
  6. EV-A71 vaccine 已在 Taiwan 可用,但只處理 EV-A71 risk,不能取代 hand hygiene 與 outbreak control。

Key references

  1. Olarte L, Edwards MS. Hand, foot, and mouth disease and herpangina. UpToDate. Literature review current through Jun 2026; topic last updated Jul 8, 2025. Topic
  2. Saguil A, Kane SF, Lauters R, Mercado MG. Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Rapid Evidence Review. Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(7):408-414. PMID: 31573162. Full text
  3. Taiwan Centers for Disease Control. Enterovirus infection with severe complications / HFMD Q&A. Updated Jun 20, 2025. Taiwan CDC
  4. Taiwan Centers for Disease Control. EV-A71 vaccine. Taiwan CDC
  5. Taiwan Centers for Disease Control. 2026 enterovirus surveillance and severe-case warning signs. Apr 21, 2026. Taiwan CDC
  6. Nguyễn TT, et al. Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of an inactivated, adjuvanted enterovirus 71 vaccine in infants and children: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2022;399(10336):1708-1717. PMID: 35427481. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00313-0.
  7. Ho M, et al. An epidemic of enterovirus 71 infection in Taiwan. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(13):929-935. PMID: 10498487. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199909233411301.